Schools face many challenges in serving students, particularly those with low-economic status. The following pages address some of these challenges. Each of these topics will be addressed in greater detail in upcoming Measuring Up reports.

School Finance
      Texas spends less per pupil on education than most other states in the nation. In spite of a greater than 10 percent increase in state appropriations for education since 1996 [59], Texas ranks toward the bottom compared to other states in per pupil spending for education (31st out of 50 states).[60] The average per pupil expenditure (including all funding sources) in the U.S. for the fiscal year 1996 was $5,652 and for Texas the average per pupil expenditure was $5,168 -- $484 less per pupil in Texas.
      School finance has been the subject of numerous political, legislative, and legal discussions. However, Texas children still do not have equal access to school funding. There is a great degree of variance in per pupil expenditures from one district to the next. In Texas, some school districts spent more than twice as much on total operating expenditures per pupil than others. While the average per pupil operating expenditure in Texas was $4,717 in 1996-1997 most of the school districts spent between $4,019 to $8,146 per student.[61] This inequity in spending, along with the resulting inequities in resources, performance, and student achievement, affect the quality of the entire educational system in Texas.
      All school districts should be guaranteed an adequate "foundation" level of funding sufficient for the school system to provide a basic education to all students. The current school finance system, approved by the Texas Supreme Court in 1995, attempts to reduce the effect of the disparity among school districts in the amount of taxable property wealth available to fund public education.[62] All districts are guaranteed a certain amount of revenue per student for each penny of tax effort. If a district cannot generate the guaranteed amount from local property taxes, the state makes up the difference. In addition, districts that are able to raise more than a certain amount per student for each penny of tax effort are required to give the excess revenue to the state, which redistributes it to less wealthy districts. This provision is widely known as the "Robin Hood" system.[63] Unfortunately, this system still leaves a disparity between districts. Poorer school districts still cannot generate the same amount of revenue as wealthier districts, leaving them struggling to stretch their limited resources.

School Crowding
      Small schools and classrooms are consistently related to higher grades and test scores, fewer suspensions and dropouts, and better rates of employment and college attendance after graduation.[64] A national study of public school enrollment growth ranked Texas 33rd in the nation in terms of its pupil/teacher ratio.[65] The study found 15.6 pupils per teacher in the Fall of 1995.[66]
      While some Texas classes are very large, crowding in Texas schools is not as big a challenge as it was 10 years ago.[67] Progress has been made in reducing class size and this may have contributed to improvement in student's performance. Texas law limits the number of students in kindergarten through fourth grade to 22.[68] In higher grades, however, classroom size can be much larger. When the ratio of students to teachers is high, students cannot get the individual attention they need. It is also hard to concentrate in a room with noise from a large number of students.[69]

Professional Development and Teacher Training
      There are 247,651 full-time teachers in Texas. One-third of all teachers have five or fewer years of experience and the average length of experience is 11.7 years. Twenty-seven percent of all teachers have advanced degrees (master's or doctoral degrees). The average base salary for teachers is $32,426[70]
      A recently released national study of teaching quality gave Texas a grade of C+ for teaching quality. The report points out that although Texas has standards for assessing new teachers, the state does not require an evaluation of new teachers' classroom performance. According to the same study, only 51 percent of secondary school teachers hold a degree in the subject they teach.[71] As mentioned earlier, Governor Bush plans to target state funding to create teacher academies.[72]
      In Texas, there is a critical need for ongoing training for teachers. Many teachers in Texas are not adequately certified in the subjects they teach. Teachers who have not yet earned appropriate certification can be granted permits allowing them to be employed in the public school system. The areas of bilingual education, special education, and English as a Second Language (ESL) have the highest proportion of teachers holding a special permit granted on a temporary basis to teachers without the appropriate certification.[73]

Technology in Schools
      Computers can be extremely motivating learning tools. In Texas, however, there is a growing disparity in how technology is used in classrooms of different schools. Some schools have very basic computer labs. Other schools with more resources are likely to have computers in the classrooms that are linked to the Internet. The children in schools with more advanced computer technologies "have exposure to worlds beyond the teacher's knowledge. They have greater opportunities to explore in-depth things that interest them."[74]
      Currently, Texas schools have an average of eleven students per computer.[75] In 1997, the Texas Education Agency awarded $15.5 million in technology grants to 19 school districts and educational cooperatives. These grants are for the development of video networking, on-line curriculum, technology training, computer networking, and other technology projects.[76] It will be important to monitor the implementation and outcomes of using these new technologies to ensure that students are gaining skills that will be useful.
      Some question whether the large investment in hardware, software, and training that becomes quickly obsolete is truly worth it. Very little research exists that demonstrates that computer technology helps students learn better and some are concerned about adverse effects on children's posture, eyesight, and hands. Furthermore, most teachers have not received adequate training in this medium.[77] Schools need to develop a plan for keeping hardware and software current and for training teachers to make maximum use of this learning tool.

School Facilities
      A 1991 study of public school facilities, mandated by the Texas Legislature, reported that 27 percent of Texas' public schools have at least one inadequate building.[78] Forty-six percent report at least one inadequate building feature including deficits in roof, foundation, walls, plumbing, and electrical power or lighting. Lack of compliance with American Disabilities Act requirements is also an issue. Sixty percent of schools reported at least one unsatisfactory environmental factor, such as poor lighting, heating, ventilation, air quality, energy efficiency, and physical security.[79] In addition to physical plant deficits, the report also cited that electronic support for computer technology was lacking. A substantial proportion of schools lacked sufficient modems, modem lines, power for communications, and fiber optic cable.[80]
      In 1995, the 74th Legislature included $170 million in the budget for facilities in the form of one-time grants. The 75th Legislature in 1997 increased the funding for facilities to $200 million. Although funding for facilities has increased, there is still great need for improvements in many schools.

Parental and Family Involvement with Schools
      Family participation is critical to students' academic success.[81] Research shows that parental involvement improves students' achievement, school programs, and the school environment.[82] It also increases the parents' role in helping their children learn and makes teachers more effective in their work. Many schools, therefore, are taking action to engage families, both at home and in the school. Family involvement may take different forms. Schools, for example, may help families support children as students by suggesting ways to support learning at home and providing programs to help families with health, nutrition, or other concerns. Programs also may assist parents in improving their own education through GED or family literacy programs.[83] When parents and school staff reinforce each other's efforts, they create support for children that enhances their achievement, behavior, and future success.[84]
      In 1995, the Texas Legislature revised the Education Code to include a Mission of Public Education that places emphasis on the importance of parent involvement.[85] The first objective of the Mission states that "Parents will be full partners with educators in the education of their children."[86] This objective is grounded in "the conviction that a successful public education system is directly related to a strong, dedicated, and supportive family and that parental involvement in the school is essential for maximum educational achievement of a child."[87] The Texas State Board of Education advocates as well for parent and family involvement, as indicated in its Long-Range Plan for Public Education, 1996-2000.[88]
      Parents, who may themselves have experienced difficulties with schools, either as students themselves or as parents may be reluctant to participate. Outreach on the part of teachers and administrators is necessary to elicit active involvement of parents. Barriers for parental involvement can include poor English skills and different cultural backgrounds. But also, when parents have the feeling the only time they are asked to come to school is when their child is in trouble, they are more reluctant to be involved.[89] To compensate for these barriers, teachers must recognize some parents' historical reluctance to involve themselves in the schools and try to find ways to make it easier for parents to enter the system.[90]
      Texas has several programs to increase parental involvement. Initiatives such as Teachers as Partners with Parents (TAPP) and the Parent Teacher Association programs for parent/family involvement will be discussed in more detail in upcoming reports.

Violence in Schools
      There is a growing concern across the nation about school violence. Once thought to be primarily a problem of urban schools, school violence has spread to all areas of the nation. The National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health reports that 24.1 percent of students indicated they had been the victim of violence in a school setting. Further, 12.4 percent of students indicated they had carried a weapon in the previous thirty days.[91] Another national study -- the National Crime Victimization Survey -- showed that students were more likely in 1995 to report that they had experienced violent victimization, could obtain drugs, and were aware of street gangs at school than in 1989.[92]
      Many teachers and staff are concerned about safety in school. In 1995, the Texas Legislature adopted a new state policy requiring that each school system create alternative education programs, including "alternative educational settings for behavioral management."[93] These programs were in response to classroom teachers who expressed the need for student disciplinary options that would allow them to remove from their classes students who were engaged in serious misbehavior.[94]
      The new policy specifies that students may be removed to alternative education programs if they engage in conduct punishable as a felony or if they commit a series of specified serious offenses while on school property or while attending a school-sponsored or school-related activity on or off school property.[95] The statute also provides that students be removed to alternative education programs if they commit other violations specified in student "codes of conduct" developed by local school districts.[96] According to summary data recently compiled by the Texas Education Agency, approximately 80,000 students were referred to alternative educational programs in the 1996-19[97] school year.97 There has not been data to this point related to the academic outcomes of students placed in alternative education programs.[98]
      Many school improvement initiatives, such as Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities, are required by the federal government. A recent report notes that "despite the existence and availability of a curriculum for violence and drug use prevention, few schools have implemented the lessons in a consistent manner."[99] Basic federal funding for this initiative may not be sufficient for its successful implementation. While many programs in the school are focused on dealing with violence once it has occurred, few are geared toward prevention of school violence.

School-Community Partnerships
      Good schools providing a quality education and foundation for future success require a great commitment from educators and the community.[100] Local school boards allow for community participation in the educational decision making process. They are agents of the state and are composed of elected members. The school board is charged with translating "community needs, values, and expectations into policies, plans, and goals. In a parallel role, they interpret the policies of the school system to the community."[101] Board members help build public support and understanding of education, serve as a link between the school system and the public and establish a climate for change when change is appropriate. School boards provide local citizen supervision and control over education through hiring and budget decisions, which dictate the educational philosophy the school district will follow.[102]
      It is vital that schools form other partnerships with community agencies and businesses as well. Breaking the cycle of disadvantage requires increased collaboration.[103] There are many examples of existing public private partnerships. Many of these will be discussed in future reports.